Lecture
4
LICHCHAVI ANCIENT
SETTLEMENTS AND ARCHITECTURE
By early Lichchavi period, settlements existed at
Sanga (Sangagrama), Banepa, Nala, Panauti, Khopasi, Palanchowk, Dumja and
probably Dolakha, Lele (Lembatidrangga), Chitlang valley and even upto Gorkha.
Within the Valley settlements occurred at Daxinakoligram, Deopatan, Hadigaon,
Budhanilkantha, Thankot, Naxal (Jonjondingrama), Jamal (Jamayambi), Kisipidi
(Kichpringgrama) etc. (Slusser, 1982).
During Lichchavi period, grama meant settlement of
Lichchavi creation or expansion and are not indicative of villages. Drangga was
not a physical classification but a type of administrative power given by the
state (Tiwari, 1982). Pringga generally referred to settlements on the crests
of hillocks and the suffix was never used for places with Sanskrit names. This
suggests pringgas refer to settlements from Kirata period whose names had
remained popular for a long time eg. Khopringgrama pradesha (eastern part of
Bhaktapur), Jolpringgrama (NW of Thankot), Lohpring and Muhpring (E and NE of
Pasupati). Settlements on slopes of hillocks usually carried the suffix “dula”
such as Kadulagrama, Mekandidula, today’s Kupandole etc.
Lichchavi towns were situated along a number of
trade routes crisscrossing the valley. The towns were fairly compact with
distinct urban character. Apart from agriculture including production of cash
crops, other activities were pursued such as animal and fish farming, mining
and metal processing, cotton weaving, forestry, trading etc. Weaving of cloth
was practiced at Thankot which is still continued. There was extensive trading
with the southern neighboring states and high levels of commercial activities
existed as evidenced by minted coins and measuring units and scales. Such
non-agriculture activities indicate certain degree of urbanization. The defense
and administrative services also appear to be highly organized into functional
departments and regional divisions for taxation and security etc. Many types of
taxes were levied e.g. on land, orchard produce such as garlic and onions,
exports, cloth, oil, shops, agriculture implements, animal farming,
entertainment etc. Tax collection centres were located close to temples and at
the palace gates. Settlements do not appear to be walled as in the later Malla
period. Pedestrian and wheeled traffic routes linked the different settlements
and the roads had various classifications such as marga, mahapath, brihatpath,
hastimarga etc.
Unlike during the earlier times when settlements
were laid on the lower slopes of the hills and drinking water sources were
close by, many Lichchavi settlements were located on the high lands (tar) of
the valley, far away from hill water sources and in areas with relatively low
water tables. To provide them with adequate water, the Lichchavis developed
ponds with deep wells or which were fed by canals bringing water over great
distances. Sometimes naturally available water veins or reservoirs were used to
supply water to depressed pit conduits (dhunge dharas). The distance from the
source or reservoir determined the depth of the pit conduits. Some of the
dhunge dharas are still working today.
The towns were either palace centric or temple
centric. Palace centric towns were the capital city with the palace as the
central focus. Maneswar (Hadigaon) where Managriha was built was the first
palace centric town. Temple
The Lichchavis established Dakshinkoligrama at the
confluence of Bagmati and Vishnumati. Bajracharya and Slusser believe the name
was derived from Koligrama which existed to the north. Tiwari refutes this
argument by proposing that the name was derived from the people of "Kaula
sect" who practiced Tantrik worship facing east so that their right hands
lay to the south (Tiwari, 1982).
The Lichchavis were also known to have expanded
existing towns. Legends mention about Amshuvarman expanding the town of Patan
to the south by clearing the forest area around Lagankhel and setting up the
temple of Batuka Bhairava (Poudel, 1963 as mentioned by Pant and Funo, 2007).
In another account, during the reign of King Viradeva, second ruler after
Amshuvarman, a grass-cutter named Lalita, was instructed to build a city by
clearing the forest of Lalita-ban. The city he built known as Lalitapura was
amalgamated with the existing city of Matilinagara (Matingrama). The city was
then marked by five mounds (Lamsal, 1966 as quoted by Pant and Funo, 2007).
Snellgrove (1957) opines that the construction of great stupas in the four
directions is a sign that it is a Buddhist city.
Hadigaon was the capital of early Lichchavis and the
location of Mangriha, the palace
of Manadeva Tibet Kathmandu
during the transitional period.
According to the Bhasavamsavali
King Gunakamadeva is supposed to have built Gunapo palace and established Kathmandu in the form of a sword between the Bagmati and
Vishnumati rivers as per the advice of Goddess Mahalaxmi in a dream. This
legend was probably a way of legitimizing the shifting of the capital city from
Hadigaon to Kathmandu sometime during 942-1008
AD. The Kampo-Yambi highway probably formed the centre line of the sword and
confirmed the amalgamation of Yambi and Yangala (north and south Kathmandu ).
Bhavanas refer to palaces. Viharas were called
viharas but no mention is made of chaityas which were probably included in the
viharas. Prasada as well as bhavana was also used to refer to Hindu structures
housing images of gods or Sivalinga. Palaces were located within settlements
whereas viharas seemed to be situated in rural areas, a few being located
within or on the fringe of urban areas. Temples
DAKSHINRAJAKULA
Anshuvarman mentions this palace and probably refers
to a very old palace, older than Mangriha. D. Bajracharya suggests it was
located at Hanuman Dhoka but Tiwari believes it lay SE of Jaisedeval and south
of Hadigaon, across all rivers in Patan. He suggests it refers to the Kirata
palace around Patukodon since chronicles mention last palace of the Kiratas to
be the first palace of the Lichchavis. The site was also known as the centre of
practice of “Daxina Buddhism” (Tiwari, 2001).
MANAGRIHA
Manadeva built Managriha during his long reign of
464-505 AD. He probably felt the need to build a new palace because of the patricide;
however, the new palace was named after him by his son only after his death.
The first edict was issued by his successor Vasantadeva in 506 AD which began
with “Um Swasti Managrihat” and symbolized the palace as the seat of power
(Tiwari, 2001). Edicts continued to be issued from the palace until 641 AD by
Bhimarjunadeva, the puppet king under Vishnugupta who lived in Kailashkutabhawana.
Jayadev II’s Narayan Chaur edict describes Managriha
as an extensive walled compound, pierced with several gateways and contained a
“preksanamandapi”which was a reception pavilion for the palace. From
Amshuvarman’s description, the palace housed the royal family and many palace
functionaries. It also contained a number of shrines and temples and a stable
for coronation horse and elephant (Slusser, 1982). Managriha probably was of
trikuta design and had a moat around it. There were public entrances on the
east and west sides. A Siva linga temple existed in the north-west corner of
the main central court. To the south there was a forecourt with a pavilion for
public audience. The outermost court or raja-agana had a prekshana-mandapi to its
south which was a pavilion to screen visitors to the palace.
Both the Jayadev II and Amshuvarman edicts are in
Hadigaon and refer to Managriha, probably indicating its location there.
According to Slusser, Karttikeya, the commander of the gods, which normally
graces temples in the capital city, has six faces, six arms, twelve eyes and
twelve or six ears. Such a statue appears to the west of Hadigaon, guarding the
western gate, thereby confirming the capital city status of Hadigaon and the
location of Managriha there (Slusser, 1982). Tiwari locates the palace to the
area generally north of Bal Mandir and to the SE of the current Manamaneswori
temple (Tiwari, 2001). Coins were minted during the Lichchavi period and there
was a place referred to as Tamrakuttasala close to Managriha. The Kampo-Yambi
highway was supposed to have passed at some distance from the palace to the
west.
KAILASHKUTA BHAVANA
Kailashkutabhavana was built by Amshuvarman (605-621
AD). Construction may have begun during the time of Sivadeva I, predecessor of
Amshuvarman when citizens of Kurppasi (Khopasi) were instructed to furnish 50
varieties of clay for the door opening festival and Kailasha festival. This
suggests the palace may have been whitewashed as was the practice in contemporary
India. First edict from the palace was issued in 605 AD. The Guptas who usurped
power and later Narendradeva (643-679) and his descendents till Jayadeva II
issued edicts from Kailashkuta bhavana, denoting that the ruler had shifted
residence from Managriha to Kailashkutabhavana (Slusser, 1982).
Two steles, first dated 606 AD erected by
Amshuvarman are located at a dabali at the east end of Hadigaon. One addresses
the palace officers and seeks their obedience and was probably located in the
centre of the palace or at the main gate. The other inscription is about the
amount of annual grant to religious and administrative institutions from the
state treasury and was probably located outside the palace gate dealing with
such grants. The location of the steles suggest the palace was situated
somewhere near the Dabali of Hadigaon (Tiwari, 2001).
According to Chinese annals, the Chinese ambassador
Wang Hsuan Tse described Kailashkutabhavana as a “storied structure 200 tch’eu
high and 80 pou (400 ft.) in circumference able to accommodate 10,000 men. It
is divided into three terraces, each divided into 7 storeys. In the four
pavilions there are sculptures which are decorated with gems and pearls. In the
middle of the palace there is a tower seven storeys high roofed with copper
tiles. Its balustrades, grilles, columns, beams and everything are set with
gems and semi-precious stones. At each of the four corners of the tower descend
copper water pipes, at the base of which water spout forth from water dragons.
From the summit of the tower, water is poured into troughs which gushes forth
like fountains from the mouth of dragons” (Slusser, 1982).
The Chinese ambassador’s
description suggests the palace was of Trikuta design, i.e. with three
courtyards, probably as Tiwari suggests in the North-south axis (Tiwari, 2001).
There was no exit from the NE to the south. The South Gate was provided a much
higher grant than the other gates suggesting it was the main gate which had a
military checkpoint and tax and administrative offices for the different parts
of the valley. The reference to Pratalya also seems to suggest there was either
a chariot way or a covered walkway linking the south gate to the inner courts.
Then there was the west gate from the lower court which also had a security
checkpoint indicating the south court was accessible to the public. Above it in
the middle court was the Managriha gate also facing west and above it another
gate. A gate also existed in the north side. The middle court led only to
Managriha while the west gate on the upper court led to a still older palace
Madhyamarajakula built by Bhumivarman, the first Lichchvi king to set up his
capital in Andipringga. As no security barriers appear to have been set up in
the Mangriha gate, Madhyamarajkula gate and the north gate, there probably was
free passage between the palaces which would suggest that they were contiguous
(Tiwari, 2001).
Classical texts required
gates to the east so its absence probably meant that access was not possible
because of a stream or a lake to the SE. The Chinese ambassador also mentioned
a lake was visible from the terrace (Tiwari, 2001). Impressive waterworks leads
one to believe that the water mechanic held an important position and this is
substantiated by the higher salary allocated to him.
The palace structure was probably constructed mainly
of wood and bricks as indicated by the bricks with Amsuvarman’s name unearthed
in Hadigaon (Slusser, 1982). Kailashkuta bhavana had more than four temples and
five gates. However, there is no mention of the temples in the Chinese annals
which should not have missed these when such a detailed description of the
palace had been provided. This would probably indicate that the temples were
either not grand structures and did not form focal points in the squares or
were confined to the private quarters of the palace. It appears palace temples
were given prominence only later during the Malla period (Tiwari, 2001).
Slusser argues that Kailashkutabhavana was probably
located in Kathmandu in the vicinity of Jaisideval because of the presence of
the statue of Kartikkaya in the vicinity whereas Tiwari firmly believes the
palace was located in Hadigaon, to the SE of Managriha and Manamaneshwari, to
the south of Gahana Pokhari which was the source of the water for the palace
waterworks (Tiwari, 2001).
BHADRADHIVASA BHAVANA
Narendradeva issued three edicts between 671-679 AD
from Bhadradhivasa bhavana. Slusser suggests it refers to Kailashkutabhavana,
not another palace, used while it was being repaired (Slusser, 1982). Tiwari
disagrees and suggests Bhadradhivasabhavana could be a palace located in Patan
where Narendradeva took up residence after he was ousted from
Kailashkutabhavana due to palace intrigue as a result of his attraction to
Buddhism (Tiwari, 2001).
VIHARAS AND CHAITYAS
Lichchavi inscriptions indicate existence of 14
viharas. Srimanadeva vihara, Abhayaruchi vihara, Chaturbhalatanasana vihara,
Kharjurika vihara, Madhyama vihara, Sivadeva vihara and Varta Kalyanagupta
vihara were thought to lie in the same general area. Sriraja vihara which was
also close to them was thought to lie NE of Gokarna. Thus all the above viharas
were probably located between Chabahil and Gokarna. Sivadeva vihara is probably
the same as Bouddhanath and Gum vihara lies at its current location at
Vajrayogini (Tiwari, 2001).
There seems to be an absence of viharas in Patan
during the Lichchavi period although there was a concentration of viharas
during the medieval period. During the period following Lichchavi, a strong
conflict appears to have developed between Brahmanism and Buddhism. Manadeva's
father probably was a victim of such conflict. As a result there appears to be
a total relocation of the Buddhist population of the area between Chabahil and
Gokarna to Patan (Tiwari, 2001). The Lichchavi viharas probably housed celibate
monks and nuns practicing Mahayana Buddhism and were generally located away
from settlements. By the time of the transitional period, Bajrayana had fully
flourished and celibate monks and nuns had given way to married bhikshus. The
design and location of the viharas were changed to accommodate their married
status. They came to be located within dense settlements (Tiwari, 2001). Locke,
however, believes the two schools of Buddhism existed alongside since early
Lichchavi times and Bajrayana slowly gained ascendancy until celibacy in monks
died out altogether (Locke, 1985).
Gopalarajavamsavali informs that Vrisadeva
built Swayambhu chaitya, Dharmadeva built Dharmode chaitya, Manadeva built Gum
Vihara and Sivadeva I built Bouddhanath. The exact form of the earlier chaityas
is difficult to determine as they are hidden within later enlarged structures.
It was a common practice in India and Nepal to enlarge existing stupas while
carefully preserving the original sacred structures within. It is therefore not
uncommon to find original images within deep niches.
Dharmadeva stupa and Mahamayuri stupa (Gum vihara)
are probably most approximate to their original size and appearance, however,
the finial is probably of later date. The original structures of Swayambhu and
Bouddha have been completely transformed during restorations (Slusser, 1982).
Nothing is known of the original structures but the pointed finial with 13
stages became standard only after the 11th century (it increased
from 5 to 9 to 13). The practice of painting eyes on the Harmika may also have
begun only after the 15th century (Slusser, 1982).
TEMPLES
Twenty-four temples are mentioned in the Lichchavi
inscriptions. Pashupati and Dolashikharaswami (Changu Narayan) were of greatest
importance. Changu predates Manadeva, whereas he is credited with the
construction of Maneshwara, current Manamaneshwari where Siva linga is placed
inside the temple (Tiwari, 2001). Jalasayi Narayana (Budhanilkantha) was
established by Vishnugupta. Other important temples were Kailashwara,
Narasimhadeva, Rameshwara, Hansagrihadeva etc.
The Lichchavis used specific suffixes to denote the
dedicated god. Swami was used to denote Vishnu, Iswara to denote Shiva, Deva to
denote Vishnu avatars and Devakula to denote Kirata temples or temples housing
more than one image Temples were not the major elements of central urban spaces
such as palace squares. This form was developed much later by the Mallas
(Tiwari, 2001).
Multi-tiered temples of brick and timber probably
existed during Lichchavi time. This can be determined partly by Wang Hsuan
tse’s description of Lichchavi structures but mainly from Amshuvarman’s 610 AD
edict where he had donated funds for the restoration of a temple in Matingrama
(Sundhara tol, Patan) because “the bricks had been disturbed and the timber of
the doors and windows had become old and broken” (Slusser, 1982). This brick
and timber temple Matin-devakula, which housed mother goddesses, was obviously
non-Lichchavi and of Kirata origin and belonged to the dyochhen typology. This temple exists today as the temple of
Balkumari.
Italian excavation at Hadigaon discovered the
foundations of a temple dating to the 2nd century BCE. The
foundation was of a typical Navagraha plan (nine holes in foundation) based on
Vastupurushamandala (Tiwari, 2001). This is an example of a brick and timber
temple, square in plan, probably with sloping roofs. The temple is credited to
the Kirata period but such structures must definitely have influenced Lichchavi
construction. There were also structures with rectangular brick foundations
suggesting temples of deochen typology. These were probably the more common
types during the Kirata period. Small temples during the Varman period were
built mainly of stones. Such temples were common in India in the early Gupta
period. It was only during the Malla period when bricks served as the
structural element and timber as the filler material.
Avarana and mandapa temples were common during the
Verman period. The 16 legged mandapa with the pyramidal roof was given a second
roof over the centre by raising the four central pillars and adding a roof to
allow smoke and incense from the vedi to escape. The temple of Changunarayan is
thought to have been constructed initially by Haridutta Varman as a 16 pillar
mandapa. Subsequently it was enclosed and built as a two-tiered temple by
Mandeva, probably to erase the memory of the patricide committed by him. This
must have been the prototype which led to the two-tiered temple design (Tiwari,
2009).
According to chronicles, Haridattavarman, an
undocumented Lichchavi king is credited with the construction of four hilltop
temples dedicated to Narayana: Changu Narayan, Ichangu Narayan, Sikhara Narayan
and Lokapalasvamin. The last temple along with the town of Hamsagrihadranga
where it was located exists no more. Currently Bishankhu Narayan is referred to
as the lost temple.
Gunakamadeva is credited with the repair of the 5
storied Pashupati temple and remodeling it into a 3 storied temple. Since the
technology of constructing more than two tiers was developed much later, this
does not seem plausible. Both types of ambulatory temples, the chariot and
palanquin (ratha and khata) were familiar in Lichchavi times. The jatra of
Machchindranatha was regulated by Narendradeva.
Stone and brick shikara type of temples, familiar in
India, were also probably known in Lichchavi period. Nepali worship is
fundamentally an individual matter so Nepali temples have no provision for
congregation as in the Indian temples.
EXISTING LICHCHAVI STRUCTURES
Simple shrines of Lichchavi
period housing Sivalingas and referred to as “avarana” can still be found in
the Pasupati and Lele area. These were probably one of the earliest forms of
shrines. They consisted of four short stone columns set directly in the ground.
The columns were almost triangular in cross section but flat on the two
exterior faces and had decorative emblems in the upper part. The decorative
motifs finished in the tamralep technique
suggest they were copies of wooden prototypes (Tiwari 2009). The roof was a 4-8
inch thick flat monolithic slab with sloping sides set directly on the stone
columns. Finials were short stubby amalakas carved separately and placed on the
roof (Slusser, 1982). Later shrines appear to have been raised from a square
stone plinth, joined at the corner junctions with half-lap joints with dowels
at the corners to house the columns.
During late Lichchavi/early transitional period
shrines became larger and more elaborate. Shrines were raised on moulded
courses, the image or linga was set on an elevated platform, columns were
engaged into hollowed out lintels, above it was a beam and on it was set a roof
composed of diminishing square and octagonal slabs, finished with an amalaka
and a bulbous terminus (Slusser, 1982).
Votive chaityas of Lichchavi
origin are still found and range from 2-4 ft. high. These are of monolithic
stone and composed of 3 principal sections: the drum, dome and finial. The
chaityas, except for a few are all raised on plinths. Sometimes the plinth is
elaborate and appears to be a virtual square temple with exterior niches facing
the cardinal points. In some rare cases the plinth makes the dome almost
non-existent and it becomes difficult to even refer to it as a chaitya
(Slusser, 1982).
Plinth may consist of diminishing stages with
niches. The niches could be 4 major and 4 minor niches or all of equal size.
This could refer to the eightfold path or eight principal events of Buddha’s
life. The niches are empty or have carved images. Metal or stone images were
probably installed in the empty niches during certain occasions (Slusser,
1982).
The Medhi of the Lichchavi chaityas were plain while
the domes were polished hemispheres and there were slight variations in their
form and size. The polish of the dome is one of the distinguishing features of
the Lichchavi period, similar to the practice in India for a short period during
the time of Ashoka. The finial consisted of a plain cube, the harmika, and
above it a diminishing squat pyramid of 3 or 4 steps. Most of the 13 stage
finials found on Lichchavi chaityas are of later date as the original finials
were replaced either because they had been destroyed by treasure hunters or
were purposely removed so as to make them conform to later Buddhist doctrines
(Slusser, 1982).
Some of the chaityas seem to be faithful copies of
existing larger buildings of the period. They point to the existence of
sixteen-legged (4x4) column structures commonly used later in temples and
dharamshalas. Octagonal colonnaded temples may also have existed as indicated
by the chaityas and their existence in contemporary India. The columns appear
square and undecorated at the bottom but change through several decorative
layers to circular form at the top and support brackets/capitals as in a
typical post-and-lintel construction. This type of construction is evident in
existent brick and timber construction of later periods (Slusser, 1982).
That the Malla style architecture was probably
derived from Lichchavi structures is made evident by the fact that the
Matingrama inscription referred to a temple with wooden windows; the style was
well developed by the 11th century when the Kasthamandap was
constructed; and the earliest known Newar style temple of Indreswara Mahadev at
Panauti constructed in 1294 already showed a matured architectural style
(Slusser, 1982). The respect for the tradition and practice of reconstructing
temples according to the original guidelines probably prevented innovations in
construction and style and helped maintain much of the original character of
the temples (Parajuli, 1986). The presence of Lichchavi chaityas within
courtyards also indicates that common houses were probably built around
courtyards as in later periods. Wang Hsuan tse had reported that Nepali houses
were built of wood and were sculptured and painted (Slusser, 1982).
URBAN SERVICES
The inscription of Lele of 604 AD provides details
about organizations such as Arogyashala (home for the recovery of health),
Pradeepa Gansthikas (organization for maintenance of city lighting),
Paniyashala (organization responsible for potable water supply), Malla Yuddha
Gasthika (troupe of wrestlers for entertainment), Pranali Gasthika (unit
responsible for maintenance of canals), Goyuddha (bull fighting establishment)
etc. This shows the town had water, lighting, health and entertainment
services. From this one can deduce that larger towns probably had even more
elaborate and developed services (Tiwari, 2001).
As towns moved to higher lands in the valley floor
during Lichchavi periods, the problem of supplying water to large urban
population became acute. Earlier settlements were closer to water sources,
closer to the mountain slopes. Later the easy water sources were far away and
sub-surface water level tended to be low. To solve this problem the Lichchavis
created pit or recessed “gairidharas” called pranalis with stone spouts
providing water for the population. Water was brought over long distances by
digging channels from the source, often in open canals and through covered conduits
in urban areas. These canals were referred to as rajkulos, some of which are
existent today. The source of water for the water conduits in the cities was
Tikabhairav for Patan, Budhanilkantha for Kathmandu and Bageswori for Bhaktapur
(Water Movement in Patan, 2008). In some cases local aquifers were tapped to
supply water to the stone spouts. An ingenious interlinkage of ponds which were
recharged by the rajkulos and monsoon
rains was built in the slightly elevated areas which in turn recharged the
local aquifers and fed the stone spouts. Specially designed mangaa or distributors regulated the
water to different hitis or spouts
within the hitis. The water discharged
from the spouts was sometimes purified by passing it through gravel/sand filter
and was stored in reservoirs behind the retaining wall with the conduit. The
oldest known dhara of 554 AD built in Hadigaon is still in use. Some of the
other Lichchavi period stone water spouts are Gairidhara at Naxal, dhara at
Naxal Bhagwati, dhara near Jaisideval, Manidhara in Patan Durbar square. These
water systems built by the Lichchavis and improved upon by the Mallas which so
successfully served the people of the Valley until very recent times is now on
the verge of collapse. The ponds and aquifers have been encroached upon. The
channels and sand belts have been disturbed or dislocated by the deep
foundations of modern buildings causing many of the spouts to dry up. Also
excessive withdrawal of water from wells dug at the shallow aquifers feeding
the hitis has further aggravated the problem.
Dharamsalas and patis were common in Lichchavi times
as evidenced by the Kasthamandap. Apart from the gairidharas, spigot fountains
(reservoir of drinking water known as jaladroni and sometimes siladroni), large
reservoirs (khataka) and irrigation canals were prevalent (Slusser, 1982).
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